Additive Manufacturing

University of Connecticut – UConn

September 2023

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2023.113123

Mingxuan Li, Sarshad Rommel, Hannah R. Leonard, Cain Hung, Thomas J. Watson, Callie L. Benson, Rainer J. Hebert, Mark Aindow

Abstract

Laser glazing of solid metal surfaces is an efficient and cost-effective way to evaluate the potential of an alloy system for use in metal additive manufacturing (MAM), but there are concerns about the stability of the resulting microstructures. Here it is shown that in situ transmission electron microscopy heating experiments on specimens cut from laser glazing tracks using focused ion beam methods can provide a useful insight into the transformation phenomena that occur upon reheating. Examples of such experiments are presented for laser tracks in a powder-processed Al-Cr-Mn-Co-Zr alloy, which contains a complex distribution of icosahedral quasicrystal (I-phase) dispersoids in a polycrystalline FCC Al matrix. Initial ramped heating experiments were performed to identify suitable conditions for isothermal studies of transformation pathways. Tracks with the lowest laser energy input exhibited supersaturated solid solution microstructures. These were stable during ramped heating to around 375 °C. For isothermal exposures at 400 °C there was precipitation of Al4(Cr,Mn) both at grain boundaries and within the FCC Al matrix phase. In tracks with higher laser energy input, equiaxed I-phase dispersoids were formed in the matrix. These microstructures were stable during ramped heating to around 400 °C. In isothermal experiments at 425 °C, there was precipitation of Al4(Cr,Mn), followed by the onset of I-phase decomposition. The partially decomposed dispersoids exhibited an I-phase core surrounded by a shell of Al45(Cr,Mn)7. In isothermal experiments at 450 °C, the dispersoids decomposed completely to form Al4(Cr,Mn), indicating that Al45(Cr,Mn)7 is a metastable intermediate transformation product. These observations provide a useful guide to the transformations that might occur during MAM processing of this alloy system.

November 2022

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.103114

Mingxuan Li, Hannah R. Leonard, Sarshad Rommel, Cain Hung, Thomas J. Watson, Tod Policandriotes, Rainer J. Hebert, Mark Aindow

Abstract

Evaluating novel alloy systems for metal additive manufacturing (MAM) is challenging especially when metastable phases are involved. Here, laser glazing was used as a cost-effective method to evaluate the potential of a powder-processed Al-Cr-Mn-Co-Zr alloy for MAM. The alloy powder exhibited a nano-composite microstructure consisting of an FCC Al matrix plus icosahedral quasicrystal (I-phase) dispersoids, and this microstructure was retained in the as-consolidated alloy. Single laser tracks were produced on the surface of a polished coupon of the consolidated alloy at a range of laser powers and scan speeds in a commercial powder bed fusion (PBF) system. The resultant microstructures and mechanical properties of the laser tracks were investigated by electron microscopy studies and hardness measurements. The laser tracks showed no solidification cracking, and the only morphological defects were occasional pores. All of the phases in the substrate alloy were melted fully in the laser tracks, and four different types of microstructures (solid solution, equiaxed dispersoids, mixed and radial growths) were observed in the solidified tracks. The microstructures obtained depended upon the input energy densities due to the combinations of laser processing parameters. The laser tracks with the solid solution and equiaxed dispersoid microstructures gave the highest hardness values of 154–170 HV, which is comparable to that of the substrate alloy. These data indicate that there is considerable promise for the application of such I-phase alloys in MAM.

McGill University

October 2016

DOI: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1557/mrs.2016.214

Y. Ding, J. A. Muñiz-Lerma, M. Trask, S. Chou, A. Walker & M. Brochu

Abstract

Aluminum alloys are in high demand for additive manufacturing (AM) processing. However, the physical properties of Al alloys are less favorable for the production of repeatable and reliable parts, with factors such as surface oxide scales, high thermal conductivity, and large solidification shrinkage. Despite these characteristics, processing strategies have been developed to overcome these hurdles. The objective of this article is to highlight the different microstructure–processing–properties characteristics for the three main families of aluminum alloys: pure, casting, and wrought chemistries. The article focuses on AM processes involving solidification, including powder bed and direct energy deposition for both powder and wire feedstock.

February 2018

Link: https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/1j92g957r

Andrew Walker

Abstract

This work presents the foundation and results of a study of the pulse laser powder bed fusion process (P-LPBF). It focuses on the unique opportunity offered for the additive manufacturing (AM) industry to control the microstructure and mechanical properties of high strength aluminum alloys.

A literature review has been presented covering the topics; additive manufacturing, high strength aluminum alloys, solidification physics, and evaporation phenomena. The work goes on to present results of a P-LPBF processing study of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu and Al-Mg-Si alloys. It was found that as built specimens of 98.0±0.5 Vol% density were achievable for the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy, whereas samples with 99.3±0.4 Vol% density were produced from the Al-Mg-Si alloy.

Solidification microstructures were examined and found to present highly refined second phases with
coarse melt pool regions for both alloys. Quantitative analysis of the solidification behaviour of the Al[1]Zn-Mg-Cu alloy was conducted with the CGM and KGT microstructure development models. It was concluded that neither alloy exhibited significant departure from equilibrium solidification behaviour. The bulk chemical analyses of P-LPBF specimens of each alloy indicated that significant solute loss had occurred. Standard T6 heat treatment procedures were applied to the samples, yielding the expected microstructure and hardness results. The observed hardness of the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy samples were found to fall below the wrought material while Al-Mg-Si alloy samples were able to slightly exceed the wrought properties. Solute loss was identified as the main variable driving this phenomenon. The AA7175 composition was more sensitive to solute loss as it depended more heavily on precipitation strengthening, while AA6061 made significant use of the Hall-Petch hardening mechanism, allowing it to tolerate substantial solute loss while maintaining the desired mechanical properties.

In summary, this work has investigated the microstructural, mechanical, and chemical properties of two solidification crack susceptible aluminum alloys. The findings clearly demonstrate promising results for the feasibility of P-LPBF AM processing of high strength aluminium alloys.

University of Texas El Paso

May 2023

Link: https://scholarworks.utep.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4824&context=open_etd

Victor Adrian Medrano Balderas

Abstract

Aluminum F357 is a widely used material for casting in the aerospace and additive manufacturing industry. Heat treatments are commonly applied to some aluminum alloys to modify their properties. With a further study on the aging and performance of the F357 with 3D printing technology, several industries benefit from this; military, automotive, and aerospace are some examples because of the numerous components cast in service. This work presents the mechanical properties of F357 specimens fabricated with EOS technology and subjected to heat treatments. Heat treatment conditions were applied to tensile specimens and tested. Furthermore, the specimens were subjected to artificial thermal aging for 100 h and 1000 h at two different temperatures (285 ºF and 350 ºF), and their mechanical properties were also determined. Finally, remarks on the comparison between the heat treatments and the effect of thermal aging on the microstructures and mechanical properties of the specimens will be presented.

April 2023

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.129

V.A. Medrano, E. Arrieta, J. Merino, B. Ruvalcaba, K. Caballero, B. Ramirez, J. Diemann, L.E. Murr, R.B. Wicker, D. Godfrey, M. Benedict, F. Medina

Abstract

AlSi7Mg (F357) alloy specimens were fabricated in two different laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) systems: EOS M290 and SLM 280HL. Vertical (Z) and horizontal (XY) orientations were fabricated, and five different thermal post processes were applied to samples, individually. According to ASTM F3318-18, the considered thermal conditions were as-built, stress relieved (SR1), HIP, T6 and HIP+T6. Subsequently, the individual samples were aged at 140 °C and 177 °C for 100 h and for up to 1000 h. Tensile specimens were machined down from the aged samples and tested as per ASTM E8/E8M-21. While the yield stress (YS), elongation (%), and Vickers microindentation hardness (HV) were somewhat different for the as-built components, the general trends for the different heat treatments were essentially the same. As-built and SR1 treated microstructures were dominated by microdendritic cells, while the HIP, T6 and T6 + HIP component microstructures consisted of recrystallized grains containing eutectic Si particles of various sizes and shapes within the grain interiors and the grain boundaries; which gave rise to wide-ranging mechanical properties. As an example of these widely-ranging mechanical properties, it was observed that components fabricated in the Z or build direction in the EOS system exhibited a YS, elongation, and HV of 225 MPa, 13%, and HV120, while when HIPed and unaged exhibited values of 87 MPa, 25%, and HV51, respectively. These same HIPed components when aged at 177 °C for 1000 h exhibited values of 81 MPa, 41% and HV44. The mechanical properties of the unaged, HIPed and aged fabricated in Z direction in SLM system were 85 MPa, 31%, HV51, and 80 MPa, 42%, and HV47, respectively, providing support for LPBF system fabrication compatibility. These measured mechanical property values represent a small fraction of the more than 1600 mechanical property measurements (YS, UTS, elongation, and hardness (HV)) in this study.

Worchester Polytechnic Institute

August 2022

Link: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/17/5853

Kyle Tsaknopoulos, Caitlin Walde, Derek Tsaknopoulos and Danielle L. Cote

Abstract

Gas-atomized powders are frequently used in metal additive manufacturing (MAM) processes. During consolidation, certain properties and microstructural features of the feedstock can be retained. Such features include porosity, secondary phases, and oxides. Of particular importance to alloys such as Al 6061, secondary phases found in the feedstock powder can be directly related to those of the final consolidated form, especially for solid-state additive manufacturing. Al 6061 is a heattreatable alloy that is commonly available in powder form. While heat treatments of 6061 have been widely studied in wrought form, little work has been performed to study the process in powders. This work investigates the evolution of the Fe-containing precipitates in gas-atomized Al 6061 powder through the use of scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The use of coupled EDS and thermodynamic modeling suggests that the as-atomized powders contain Al13Fe4 at the microstructure boundaries in addition to Mg2Si. After one hour of thermal treatment at 530 ◦C, it appears that the dissolution of Mg2Si and Al13Fe4 occurs concurrently with the formation of Al15Si2M4 , as suggested by thermodynamic models.

September 2020

DOI:  https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/13/18/4051

Kyle Tsaknopoulos, Caitlin Walde, Derek Tsaknopoulos, Victor Champagne and Danielle Cote

Abstract

Aluminum 5056 is a work-hardenable alloy known for its corrosion resistance with new applications in additive manufacturing. A good understanding of the secondary phases in Al 5056 powders is important for understanding the properties of the final parts. In this study, the effects of different thermal treatments on the microstructure of Al 5056 powder were studied. Thermodynamic models were used to guide the interpretation of the microstructure as a function of thermal treatment, providing insight into the stability of different possible phases present in the alloy. Through the use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), combined with thermodynamic modeling, a greater understanding of the internal microstructure of Al 5056 powder has been achieved in both the as-atomized and thermally treated conditions. Evidence of natural aging within these powders was observed, which speaks to the shelf-life of these powders and the importance of proper treatment and storage to maintain consistent results.

October 2018

DOI: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328241021_Gas-Atomized_Al_6061_Powder_Phase_Identification_and_Evolution_During_Thermal_Treatment

Kyle Tsaknopoulos, Caitlin Walde, Victor Champagne, and Danielle Cote

Abstract

Metal additive manufacturing processes often use gas-atomized powder as feedstock, but these processes use different methods for consolidation. Depending on the consolidation temperature, secondary phases may be retained during processing, making it important to understand powder microstructure prior to consolidation. Commercial alloy compositions are typically used for these powders because they have been widely studied and qualified; however, the microstructure of the powder form of these compositions has not been studied. This paper aims to understand the commercial Al 6061 powder: how the internal microstructure of the powder differs from wrought both in the as-manufactured and thermally-treated conditions. A specific focus is put on the Mg-rich phases and their morphologies. This was accomplished through transmission electron microscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. Both the size and morphology of the phases in the powder differ greatly from those in the wrought form.

April 2020

DOI: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13632-020-00641-6

Caitlin Walde, Kyle Tsaknopoulos, Victor Champagne, Danielle Cote

Abstract

Al 7075 is a heat-treatable Al–Mg–Zn alloy widely used in the aerospace industry. Recently, it has found application as feedstock for metal additive manufacturing (MAM). It has been shown that wrought alloy compositions in powder form differ in microstructure and properties from their conventional form. Given this, it is important to understand the microstructure of the powders prior to use in MAM processes. This work studies as-atomized gas-atomized Al 7075 powders and the effect of thermal treatments on microstructure. Extensive electron microscopy revealed the presence of T-phase, Al7Cu2Fe, and Mg2Si in the as-atomized condition. Thermal treatments were performed at 465 °C and 480 °C to homogenize the microstructure; however, S-phase was unexpectedly present in the samples treated at 465 °C. In both 465 °C and 480 °C treatments, T-phase was not fully dissolved after the 60-min treatment. Guided by thermodynamic modeling, these results indicate a shift in local equilibria in these powders.

Wayne State University, Detroit.

October 2018

DOI: 10.18689/ijmsr-1000108

International Journal of Material Science and Research 1 (2018) 50-55

A. Bhagavatam, A. Ramakrishnan, V.S.K. Adapa, G.P. Dinda, et al.

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) has become one of the most important research topics with its ability to manufacture a wide range of alloys like steel, nickel-based super alloys, titanium alloys, aluminum alloys, etc. Al 7075 is not a friendly alloy for laser metal deposition (LMD). This paper reports the successful development of LMD process for deposition of defect-free Al 7075 alloy. By preheating the substrate to 260°C the residual stress decreased and eliminated the hot/solidification cracks in the deposit. LMD is a rapid cooling process due to which the gas bubbles of Mg and Zn are trapped in the deposit. These are identified as gas porosity because of the partial evaporation of low boiling point elements like magnesium and zinc present in this alloy. The least porosity observed was 0.08% at 29 J/mm2 of energy input. The SEM and EDS investigation of as-deposited Al 7075 revealed the segregation of Cu, Mg, and Zn rich phases along the inter dendritic regions and grain boundaries. Cu, Mg, and Zn rich phases at the inter dendritic regions dissolved into the α-Almatrix after heat treatment. The XRD scan of laser deposited Al 7075 revealed the presence of Al2CuMg and MgZn2 precipitation hardening phases.

May 2017

DOI: 10.5781/JWJ.2017.35.4.10

Journal of Welding and Joining 35(4)(2017) 67-77.

Singh, A. Ramakrishnan, G.P. Dinda

Abstract

Recently, Al-Si alloys samples have been manufactured at lab scale using various additive manufacturing processes, but so far there is no literature available to investigate the feasibility of fabricating Al-Si alloy component for automotive component applications using Direct Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) technique. This paper deals with the practical challenges of building single wall and block deposition (cuboid shapes) of eutectic Al-Si alloy using direct laser metal deposition process for developing automotive applications. Two scanning pattern, hatch pattern and single wall pattern were chosen to study the effect of scanning direction on mechanical properties as well as microstructural evolution. Microstructural investigation of single wall and block deposition using optical and scanning electron microscopy revealed a 99.9% dense component with very fine hypoeutectic microstructure. Tensile test sample extracted from block deposition showed an impressive elongation of 9% with an ultimate tensile strength of 225 MPa and tensile test sample of single wall showed an average elongation of 9.4% with an ultimate tensile strength of 225 MPa. This investigation revealed that direct laser metal deposition could successfully print the eutectic Al-Si alloy bracket on shock tower hood without any distortion or bending.

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

February 2025

DOI: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264127525000152?via%3Dihub

Alfred Amon, Glenn E. Bean, J.-B. Forien, Thomas Voisin, Joshua A. Hammons, Emily E. Moore, Emrah Simsek, Jibril Shittu, Katherine S. Shanks, Kelly E. Nygren, Aurélien Perron, Ryan Ott, Scott K. McCall, Hunter B. Henderson

Abstract

The composition Al-16Ce-1Mg has been developed as a dedicated alloy for processing by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Guided by thermodynamic considerations and exploiting the unique conditions during LPBF, the strongly hypereutectic alloy features nm-scale aluminum dendrites reinforced by a continuous intermetallic network. The unique temperature stability of Al-Ce alloys as well as the microstructure topology and scale grant the alloy high strength in as-printed state with excellent thermal stability. The superior mechanical properties of the continuously reinforced nanocomposite were established by comparison with the spheroidized, microstructure of similar scale.

March 2021

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2021.100972

Aiden A. Martin, Joshua A. Hammons, Hunter B. Henderson, Nicholas P. Calta, Michael H. Nielsen, Caitlyn C. Cook, Jianchao Ye, Alyssa A. Maich, Nicholas E. Teslich, Tian T. Li, Michael J. Thompson, Matthew F. Besser, Manyalibo J. Matthews, Ryan T. Ott, Orlando Rios, Scott K. McCall, Trevor M. Willey, Jonathan R.I. Lee.

Abstract

To date, the primary focus of metal additive manufacturing (AM) research has been the development of strategies for fabricating complex architectures, reducing internal stress and optimizing microstructure. Traditional Al alloys have presented further challenges in this effort due to solidification cracking and complex laser coupling dynamics. To overcome these limitations, identification of novel alloys that exploit the rapid solidification conditions inherent in laser-based AM is required. In this work, laser-induced melting of an Al-8Ce-10Mg alloy is revealed to generate a nanoscale microstructure which results in improved hardness, tensile strength, and mitigated solidification cracking (e.g., hot tearing) in single laser tracks in as-cast material and laser powder bed fusion (LPBF)-fabricated components. In situ X-ray imaging shows the nanostructure arises from laser-induced melting of intermetallic particles embedded into the alloy during casting and then rapid resolidification of the molten material in ~ 400 µs. The formed Ce-rich nanostructures are highly resistant to thermal coarsening at 300 °C, as confirmed by microscopy and retention of tensile properties. These results pave the way for development of AM-specific Al alloys that possess the ability to form mechanically favorable nanostructures in fabricated components due to the rapid cooling inherent in LPBF.

McMaster University

March 2025

Link: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-82907-9_14

Ali Ghasemi, Eskandar Fereiduni, Mohamed Elbestawi, Swee Leong Sing

Abstract

This study investigates the potential enhancement of electrical and nanohardness properties in aluminum (Al) alloys through the incorporation of graphene. A binary Al alloy, AlSi12, was mixed with 0.5 wt% graphene using ball milling. The composite powder was then used in laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) to fabricate samples. Electrical conductivity and nanohardness were measured to assess the properties of the composite compared to monolithic AlSi12. Microstructural analysis was conducted using scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The results reveal that while the addition of graphene slightly reduces electrical conductivity due to the transformation of a large portion of the starting graphene to Al4C3 during processing, it enhances nanohardness through the presence of surviving graphene and nano sized Al4C3 carbides with higher hardness than the unreinforced AlSi12 matrix.

2023

Link: http://hdl.handle.net/11375/28615

Ghasemi, Ali

Abstract

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), one of the most promising additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, has enabled the production of previously impossible structures. This breakthrough in AM has not only facilitated the creation of new designs, but also the redesign of existing industrial and engineering components to produce lightweight and highly efficient dies and molds, biomaterial scaffolds, aircraft brackets, heat sink and heat exchangers. In many of the mentioned applications in industries such as automotive, aerospace, heat exchanger, and electronics, aluminum (Al), Al alloys, and Al matrix composites (AMCs) are considered potential candidates. In the first phase of this study, the optimum powder particle size and size distribution of an Al alloy powder (i.e., AlSi10Mg) was determined with the aim being to achieve highest densification levels and dimensional accuracies. In the second phase, three materials with high thermal conductivities were selected, namely, pure Al, AlSi12 and AlSi10Mg alloys. Since Al/Al alloys are prone to oxidation, the LPBF process parameters were optimized not only in terms of the densification level but also oxygen content of the fabricated parts. It was found out that the rate of oxide diminishment for Al/Al alloys during the LPBF process is more than in-situ oxidation. Despite the efforts, the optimized LPBF fabricated samples showed lower thermal conductivity than their conventionally manufactured counterparts. To tackle the issue, two different potential solutions were put into test. In the third phase, the influence of preheating on thermal properties of pure Al, AlSi12, and AlSi10Mg was investigated and a huge improvement in the thermal conductivity of the optimized as-built parts was obtained. In the fourth phase, the possibility of enhancing thermal conductivity of the LPBF fabricated Al/Al alloys in as-built condition through the incorporation of a second constituent with a higher thermal conductivity (i.e., graphene) was investigated.

January 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.177075Get rights and content

Ali Ghasemi, Eskandar Fereiduni, Mohamed Elbestawi, Kayvon Savadkouei, Fran Adar, Swee Leong Sing, Saeid Habibi

Abstract

The successful fabrication and implementation of graphene-reinforced aluminum (Al) matrix composites (AMCs) have been obstructed by the undesirable graphene-Al reactions during their casting or inability of complex part manufacturing through powder metallurgy techniques. The emergence of the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process with extremely short melt duration and almost no limitations in terms of the manufacturing of intricate features has renewed the interests for fabrication of graphene-reinforced AMCs. In this study, the influence of graphene incorporation into AlSi12 on L-PBF processability and defect formation is studied. The specific heat capacity, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of composites were compared to those of the monolithic AlSi12 alloy. Microstructure-thermal properties relationship was studied through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution TEM (HRTEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), electron dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and Raman spectroscopy. This study provides valuable insights into (i) the chance of survival of graphene, (ii) possibility of graphene changing into other forms of carbon, and (iii) graphene-Al reactions during the L-PBF process. It was found that most of the graphene/graphite particles transformed into Al4C3. Among the survived carbon material, it appears they are more disordered than the initial graphene/graphite, though highly ordered ones with almost no defects were also detected. Thermal expansion measurements showed that the coefficient of thermal expansion decreased from 27.5×10–6/˚C for AlSi12 to 25.3×10–6/˚C for AlSi12–0.25 Gr and 25.5×10–6/˚C for AlSi12–0.5 Gr. Regarding thermal conductivity, in the case of AlSi12–0.5 Gr, it either matched or was lower than that of pure AlSi12 within the tested temperature range. In contrast, AlSi12–0.25 Gr exhibited higher thermal conductivity than AlSi12 in the temperature range of 150–350˚C.

August 2023

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2023.118689

Ali Ghasemi, Eskandar Fereiduni, Mohamed Elbestawi, Jasmin Kathrin Saewe, Niklas Hartke, Fran Adar, Kayvon Savadkouei, Yoshinori Fukushima, Saeid Habibi

Abstract

This study investigates the possibility of using dry mechanical mixing techniques to prepare ideal composite powders for L-PBF applications. For this purpose, two AlSi12-reinforced composite powders with 0.5 and 1 wt% graphene were prepared by ball milling and regular mixing processes. The powder attributes (size, size distribution and shape), behaviors (absorptivity, packing density, and flowability), relative humidity, and O/C/H content of the composite powders were quantitatively assessed after mixing and compared to those of monolithic AlSi12. The attachment of the graphene particles and their evolutions during each mixing technique were qualitatively investigated. The quality of the graphene powder before and after mixing was studied by Raman spectroscopy, and the nature of the carbonaceous constituent in the composite powders was identified based on the Raman peak positions, shapes and relative intensities. The results of this study prove that only through ball milling ideal composite powders for the L-PBF applications can be achieved.

Politecnico di Torino

October 2021

DOI: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355372952_Short_Heat_Treatments_for_the_F357_Aluminum_Alloy_Processed_by_Laser_Powder_Bed_Fusion

Matteo Vanzetti , Enrico Virgillito, Alberta Aversa, Diego Manfredi, Federica Bondioli, Mariangela Lombardi and Paolo Fino

Abstract

Conventionally processed precipitation hardening aluminum alloys are generally treated with T6 heat treatments which are time-consuming and generally optimized for conventionally processed microstructures. Alternatively, parts produced by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) are characterized by unique microstructures made of very fine and metastable phases. These peculiar features require specifically optimized heat treatments. This work evaluates the effects of a short T6 heat treatment on L-PBF AlSi7Mg samples. The samples underwent a solution step of 15 min at 540 ◦C followed by water quenching and subsequently by an artificial aging at 170 ◦C for 2–8 h. The heat treated samples were characterized from a microstructural and mechanical point of view and compared with both as-built and direct aging (DA) treated samples. The results show that a 15 min solution treatment at 540 ◦C allows the dissolution of the very fine phases obtained during the L-PBF process; the subsequent heat treatment at 170 ◦C for 6 h makes it possible to obtain slightly lower tensile properties compared to those of the standard T6. With respect to the DA samples, higher elongation was achieved. These results show that this heat treatment can be of great benefit for the industry.

March 2025

DOI: 10.2497/jjspm.16B-T6-30

Nicolò Arcieri, Diego Manfredi, Marco Actis Grande

Abstract

Al-8Fe-4Ce is an aluminium alloy developed in the 80’s as potential replacement for titanium in structural applications at medium service temperatures (up to 350 °C). This alloy was specifically tailored for powder metallurgy process since both the Fe and the Ce contents are far beyond the equilibrium solid solubility. Indeed, these elements are fundamental for the mechanical properties at high temperature. Nowadays, the study of Al alloys that can withstand service temperatures higher than 200 °C has regained momentum due to the emergence of additive manufacturing (AM) as reliable manufacturing processes. Among them, laser powder bed fusion for metals (PBF-LB/M) guarantees similar cooling rates of traditional rapid solidification techniques but with the ability to produce components with a high degree of complexity. In this study, Al-8Fe-4Ce was processed by press and sinter (P/S) and by PBF-LB/M and then the obtained samples were compared in terms of microstructure and mechanical properties.

Other Universities and Research Centers

April 2021

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.031

M.J. Benoit, S.D. Sun, M. Brandt, M.A. Easton

Abstract

There is a relative lack of data on the processing parameters suitable for laser metal deposition (LMD) of Al alloys, particularly high strength alloys. The objective of this study is to outline a systematic investigation to define the processing window for LMD of Al alloy 7075. Single linear tracks were fabricated by varying the powder mass flow rate, laser power, and scan speed according to a 33 factorial experimental design, in order to determine conditions that produce deposits with suitable cross section geometries. Single layer multi-track deposits were fabricated using parameters selected from the linear track experiments, and with varying track overlap values. Low energy input and powder deposition conditions were found to produce single track and multi-track deposits with porosity less than 0.3 and 1 %, respectively. Cuboid samples were produced using parameters selected from the single layer multi-track processing window. However, porosity of at least 4 % was observed in the cross section for all cuboid samples. Liquation cracking was not observed in the samples, despite clear signs of grain boundary liquation. Microcracks with a width of ∼1 μm were observed in the deposited material, and the results indicate that these are solidification cracks due to insufficient eutectic liquid to backfill and ‘heal’ incipient cracks. It is concluded that low energy density and powder mass deposition conditions can produce crack-free single layer deposits of 7075 with low porosity, but the elimination of interlayer porosity and microcracks in multi-layer deposits requires further study.

January 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112602

Abhijeet Dhal, Saket Thapliyal, Priyanka Agrawal, Ankita Roy, Aishani Sharma, Rajiv S. Mishra, Eric Faierson

Abstract

The unique thermokinetics of laser-powder bed fusion additive manufacturing (L-PBFAM) has been exploited for development of a novel high-strength Al-Ni-Ti-Zr-Mn alloy. The addition of 0.5 wt% Mn leads to extraordinary improvement in ultimate tensile strength (502 MPa) and work hardening due to the activation of two Mn-induced strengthening mechanisms. First, by a bimodal particle strengthening effect due to Al31Mn6Ni12 nano-quasi-crystal particles rejected in inter-dendritic spaces and fibrous Al3Ni eutectic dendritic channels, which predominately contributes to the strength improvement, and second by solid solution strengthening from remaining Mn entrapped in Al. These mechanisms supplement the particle strengthening effect imparted by coherent and incoherent Al3(Ti,Zr) co-precipitates present at melt pool boundaries, dislocation strengthening due to solidification induced strain, and Hall-Petch and backstress strengthening effect due to heterogenous grain size distribution occurring at various length scales. The solidification dynamics and hierarchical heat distribution that are associated with L-PBFAM resulted in complex spatial variations in these strengthening phenomena and were investigated via a high-throughput multiscale structure–property correlation that involved thermokinetic simulation, X-ray diffraction, high-resolution nanoindentation mapping, and site-specific transmission electron microscopy of the alloy.

July 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2025.104886

Zhongshu Ren, Samuel J. Clark, Lin Gao, Kamel Fezzaa, Tao Sun

Abstract

A variety of protective or reactive environmental gases have recently gained growing attention in laser-based metal additive manufacturing (AM) technologies due to their unique thermophysical properties and the potential improvements they can bring to the build processes. However, much remains unclear regarding the effects of different gas environments on critical phenomena in laser AM, such as rapid cooling, energy coupling, and defect generation. Through simultaneous high-speed synchrotron x-ray imaging and thermal imaging, we identify distinct effects of two environmental gases in laser AM and gained a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Compared to the commonly used protective gas, argon, it is found that helium has a negligible effect on cooling the part. However, helium can suppress unstable keyholes by decreasing effective energy absorption, thus mitigating keyhole porosity generation and reducing pore size under certain processing conditions. These observations provide guidelines for the strategic use of environmental gases in laser AM to produce parts with improved quality.

February 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.178983

Qingyu Pan, Fan Zhang, Deepak V Pillai, Zilong Zhang, Yufeng Zheng, Lang Yuan, Monica Kapoor, John Carsley, Xiaoyuan Lou

Abstract

In the present work, we studied the grain refinement by adding in situ reactants, pure titanium (Ti) or a combination of Ti and boron (B), and investigated the governing mechanism in Al-Mn-Fe-Si 3104 alloy made by laser directed energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing (AM). The transition from large columnar grains to refined equiaxed grains was achieved by Ti addition or Ti+B additions and in situ reaction during laser AM. The sole addition of Ti was identified as the best grain refiner in this study. The increase in Ti addition from 0.5 wt% to 1 wt% resulted in a transition from partial to complete equiaxed grain structure. With the same amount of Ti, B addition would diminish grain refinement, due to the consumption of Ti to form TiB2. The direct addition of TiB2 particles was proven to be ineffective to grain refinement. Substrate heating further improved grain refinement by reducing the cooling rate and temperature gradient. The study demonstrated the higher nucleation potency of Al3Ti than in situ formed TiB2 during laser DED AM. The formation of Al3Ti plays the most critical role in grain nucleation.

January 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.177075Get rights and content

Ali Ghasemi, Eskandar Fereiduni, Mohamed Elbestawi, Kayvon Savadkouei, Fran Adar, Swee Leong Sing, Saeid Habibi

Abstract

The successful fabrication and implementation of graphene-reinforced aluminum (Al) matrix composites (AMCs) have been obstructed by the undesirable graphene-Al reactions during their casting or inability of complex part manufacturing through powder metallurgy techniques. The emergence of the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process with extremely short melt duration and almost no limitations in terms of the manufacturing of intricate features has renewed the interests for fabrication of graphene-reinforced AMCs. In this study, the influence of graphene incorporation into AlSi12 on L-PBF processability and defect formation is studied. The specific heat capacity, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of composites were compared to those of the monolithic AlSi12 alloy. Microstructure-thermal properties relationship was studied through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution TEM (HRTEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), electron dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and Raman spectroscopy. This study provides valuable insights into (i) the chance of survival of graphene, (ii) possibility of graphene changing into other forms of carbon, and (iii) graphene-Al reactions during the L-PBF process. It was found that most of the graphene/graphite particles transformed into Al4C3. Among the survived carbon material, it appears they are more disordered than the initial graphene/graphite, though highly ordered ones with almost no defects were also detected. Thermal expansion measurements showed that the coefficient of thermal expansion decreased from 27.5×10–6/˚C for AlSi12 to 25.3×10–6/˚C for AlSi12–0.25 Gr and 25.5×10–6/˚C for AlSi12–0.5 Gr. Regarding thermal conductivity, in the case of AlSi12–0.5 Gr, it either matched or was lower than that of pure AlSi12 within the tested temperature range. In contrast, AlSi12–0.25 Gr exhibited higher thermal conductivity than AlSi12 in the temperature range of 150–350˚C.

2020

Link: https://escholarship.org/content/qt4f50f7h7/qt4f50f7h7_noSplash_1df6819735cb73f884b8615a2749f028.pdf

Parnian Kiani

Abstract

Interest in additive manufacturing (AM) has grown exponentially in recent decades and is now being used in many different industries, such as the aerospace, automotive, and biomedical device industries. Unfortunately, the high cost of feedstock powder material, the need for high energy lasers, and a low rate of production have limited the use of this powerful technique on a large scale. Among all the parameters that are crucial in the quality of the parts, the relationship between starting feedstock powder and the quality of the part is not well explored. The common feedstock used in AM, gas atomized powder, requires a high amount of energy and inert gas to be produced. Therefore, gas atomized powder production is costly and not environmentally desirable. AM is believed to produce lower waste compared to the conventional manufacturing process due to minimal required post-processing; however, unless more sustainable starting materials and continuous powder reuse are implemented, the process is very wasteful. The primary focus of this dissertation is on understanding the role of the starting powder on the AM process sustainability in addition to the properties of additively manufactured parts. Powder size and morphology strongly influence powder flow and powder packing density, both of which are critical to successful AM processing. Therefore, the relationship between powder morphological features and flowability was explored and concluded that flowability of powders are heavily influenced by xviii the particles size and shape. In order to reduce the amount of waste produced in laser directed energy deposition (L-DED) process, gas atomized powder was reused, and the reused powders and manufactured parts were characterized. The results indicate that although particles undergo severe changes as they are being reused in AM, the mechanical properties of the manufactured parts show minimal changes. The production of powder from waste material for AM was explored. High energy milling and cryomilling were employed to recycle waste materials to be used as a starting material in AM. The results show that the size and morphology of the produced powder are significantly influenced by the production method, which was modified by tailoring the processing parameters. In addition, the feasibility of depositing aluminum matrix composites has been investigated as a way to improve the mechanical properties of parts manufactured with milled powder. The composite single tracks deposited in L-DED showed comparable morphologies to the single tracks deposited with gas atomized powder. Understanding the effects of using milled powder prepared as composite or recycled powder on the mechanical and microstructural properties of AM parts will be investigated in future work.

December 2022

DOI: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772369022000421?via%3Dihub

Minglei Qu, Qilin Guo, Luis I. Escano, Samuel J. Clark, Kamel Fezzaa, Lianyi Chen

Abstract

Keyhole pore formation is one of the most detrimental subsurface defects in the laser metal additive manufacturing process. However, effective ways to mitigate keyhole pore formation beyond tuning laser processing conditions during keyhole mode laser melting are still lacking. Here we report a novel approach to mitigate keyhole pore formation during laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process by using stable nanoparticles. The critical keyhole depth for keyhole pore generation (i.e., the largest keyhole depth without keyhole pore formation) during LPBF of Al6061 increases from 246 µm to 454 µm (85% increase) after adding TiC nanoparticles. In-depth x-ray imaging studies and thermo-fluid dynamics simulation enable us to identify that two mechanisms work together to mitigate keyhole pore generation: (1) adding nanoparticles prevents the keyhole from collapsing by increasing the liquid viscosity to impede the protrusion development; (2) adding nanoparticles slows down the keyhole pore movement by increasing the liquid viscosity, resulting in the recapturing of the pore by the keyhole. We further demonstrate that adding TiC nanoparticles can also eliminate the keyhole fluctuation induced keyhole pore during LPBF of Al6061. Our research provides a potential way to mitigate keyhole pore formation for defect lean metal additive manufacturing.

December 2017

Link: https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/files/final_submissions/15568

Bellamarie Ludwig

Abstract

The reaction of aluminum powder fuel in a steam-combustion reaction is highly exothermic and can be used for thermal power plants to produce energy. This concept is ideal for use in underwater vehicles, where the presence of molecular oxygen negates the use of standard combustion reactions for power and energy generation. A significant technical challenge associated with the use of aluminum powder as a fuel is that powders of fine particle size are cohesive and have poor flow properties due to attractive interparticulate interactions. Reducing the inter-particulate cohesion through particle surface modification enables successful fuel delivery. This dissertation uses hydrophobic, siloxane based surface treatments to reduce the inter-particulate cohesion of aluminum particles and thus improve the flowability. Chapter 3 focuses on the bulk property enhancement of solution phase methyltriethoxysilane surface modified particles, which was revealed to improve bulk density, reduce cohesion, and improve aeration properties, even at fine particle size. Chapter 4 describes the design of a gas phase deposition process using volatized polydimethylsiloxane in a fluidized bed, which also subsequently improved the flowability of the treated powder. Chapter 5 discusses the development of an in situ technique to study fluidization behavior in an aerated environment through powder column expansion and estimation of minimum fluidization velocities. Overall, this work contributes to the development of a powder fuel to support the design of an aluminum powder fuel-steam power plant for use in underwater power and energy generation.

2022

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.26153/tsw/44561

Diaz, J., Caballero, K., Medrano, V.A., Arrieta, E., Benedict, M., Godfrey, D., Wicker, R. B., Medina, F

Abstract

In this paper, Aluminum F357 (AlSi7Mg), a material which is widely used in the automotive, aerospace, and additive manufacturing industries, will be analyzed after performing several heat treatments to enhance the properties of the material. However, there is currently no standard for the usage and heat treating of F357 alloy; for that reason, ASTM F3318 standard will be followed for heat treating it. Having a comprehensive study on the performance of 3D-printed F357 benefits the automotive, military and aerospace industries due to the numerous casted components already in service and many becoming legacy components. This work presents mechanical and microstructural properties of F357 specimens fabricated with SLM technology and subjected to heat treatments; as-built, stress-relief, T6, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), and HIP+T6 heat treatments were applied. Furthermore, with the interest of the alloy performance in- service conditions, the specimens were subjected to artificial thermal aging.

August 2023

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.145397

Erfan Maleki, Sara Bagherifard, Asghar Heydari Astaraee, Simone Sgarbazzini, Michele Bandini, Mario Guagliano

Abstract

Post-processing methods can be crucial in addressing the associated anomalies of the as-built state of additively manufactured materials. In this study, for the first time, the effects of gradient severe shot peening as a novel mechanical surface treatment, along with other types of shot peening treatments, including conventional, severe, and over shot peening processes were investigated individually and combined with heat treatment on fatigue behavior of hourglass AlSi10Mg samples fabricated by laser powder bed fusion. Detailed experimental characterizations in terms of microstructure, porosity, surface texture, hardness and residual stresses as well as rotating bending fatigue behavior were conducted. The experimental results revealed a significant fatigue behavior improvement after applying gradient severe shot peening treatments due to their remarkable capacity to modulate surface texture, known as a side effect of peening, besides surface layer nanocrystallization, enhanced hardness, and high compressive residual stresses.

July 2023

DOI: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264127523004240?via%3Dihub

S. Nam, E. Simsek, N. Argibay, O. Rios, H.B. Henderson, D. Weiss, E.E. Moore, A.P. Perron, S.K. McCall, R.T. Ott.

Abstract

Al-Ce-based alloys are promising candidates for additive manufacturing (AM) due to their hot-cracking resistance and because they do not require heat treatment to obtain precipitation strengthening. Rapid solidification rates enabled by AM methods can lead to enhanced mechanical properties; however, the strengthening mechanisms over large composition ranges were unclear. Here, combinatorial synthesis by directed-energy deposition (DED) and hardness measurements were used to rapidly map the composition-dependent strength of the ternary Al-Ce-Mg system. Tensile testing and microstructure characterization of selected compositions were performed to elucidate the compositional dependence of the strengthening mechanisms. Al11Ce3 precipitates were present in all cases, and the maximum hardness (1.25 GPa) was measured for the Al-8Ce-10Mg composition. A combination of (i) Hall-Petch strengthening, based on the FCC-matrix-phase cell size; (ii) particle strengthening, based on Al11Ce3 volume fraction and size; and (iii) solid-solution strengthening, based on Mg composition of the matrix phase, were used to account for the measured strengths. Vickers hardness is shown to correlate well with ultimate tensile strength in these alloys, highlighting the value of surface-based techniques for rapid screening.

May 2012

DOI: 10.1007/s11661-012-1560-3

Microstructural, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 44 (2013) 2233-2242.

G.P. Dinda, A.K. Dasgupta, S. Bhattacharya, H. Natu, B. Dutta, J. Mazumder,

Abstract

Direct metal deposition (DMD) technology is a laser-aided rapid prototyping method that can be used to fabricate near net shape components from their CAD files. In the present study, a series of Al-Si samples have been deposited by DMD in order to optimize the laser deposition parameters to produce high quality deposit with minimum porosity and maximum deposition rate. This paper presents the microstructural evolution of the as-deposited Al 4047 sample produced with optimized process parameters. Optical, scanning, and transmission electron microscopes have been employed to characterize the microstructure of the deposit. The electron backscattered diffraction method was used to investigate the grain size distribution, grain boundary misorientation, and texture of the deposits. Metallographic investigation revealed that the microstructural morphology strongly varies with the location of the deposit. The layer boundaries consist of equiaxed Si particles distributed in the Al matrix. However, a systematic transition from columnar Al dendrites to equiaxed dendrites has been observed in each layer. The observed variation of the microstructure was correlated with the thermal history and local cooling rate of the melt pool.

January 2012

DOI: 10.1007/s11661-012-1560-3

Surface and Coatings Technology 206 (2012), 2152-2160.

G.P. Dinda, A.K. Dasgupta, J. Mazumder

Abstract

Laser melting of Al–Si alloys has been investigated extensively, however, little work on the microstructural evolution of laser deposited Al–Si alloys has been reported to date. This paper presents a detailed microstructural investigation of laser deposited Al–11.28Si alloy. Laser aided direct metal deposition (DMD) process has been used to build up solid thin wall samples using Al 4047 prealloyed powder. The evolution of macro- and microstructures of laser deposited Al–Si samples was investigated using X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and electron backscattered diffraction techniques. Microstructural observation revealed that the morphology and the length scale of the microstructures are different at different locations of the sample. A periodic transition of microstructural morphology from columnar dendrite to microcellular structure was observed in each layer. The observed difference in the microstructure was correlated with the thermal history of the deposit.

July 2020

DOI: 10.1007/s11663-020-01902-z

Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B volume 51, pages2230–2239 (2020)

M. Skelton, C. V. Headley, E. J. Sullivan, J. M. Fitz-Gerald & J. A. Floro

Abstract

Gas-atomized powders are commonly used in additive manufacturing, specifically laser powder bed fusion, due to their high flowability during recoating. Morphological changes can occur in particles that are irradiated by the laser during additive manufacturing, but are not incorporated into the melt pool. These irradiated particles will affect the rheology of the recycled powder in subsequent builds, potentially leading to failures due to uneven powder flow or spatial distribution. Thus, a better understanding of mechanisms that degrade the sphericity of powder after being laser irradiated is needed. This research examines morphological changes in Al and Al-Cu eutectic powders after laser melting. Two complementary approaches were taken. First, particles found along the edges of line scans following high-power (300 W) laser irradiation were characterized. The collected particles displayed morphological anomalies not observed in the as-received powder. Then, to gain a more quantitative and controlled perspective on morphological evolution, the same base powders were dispersed onto glass substrates and irradiated with a low-power (6.5 W) CW laser diode. This approach, which permits characterization of specific particles before and after laser irradiation, clearly shows laser-induced changes in the surface morphology of particles in the form of dents and rifts. These results suggest that isolated melting and resolidification of particles contained within their respective oxide shells can occur at the relatively low laser energy densities present at the edges of laser melt tracks. Thermal stresses developing in the oxide shell during cooling can account for the observed morphological changes in the context of shell-buckling theory.

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